GAUMUKH
30.930300,79.078100
Description
NOTE 1: The photograph gomukh170.jpg, taken in late June 2007 and showing meltwater issuing from the entrance of a glacier cave, had been uploaded on èÓ¾Ó‰ (Ú½ÂÍËÌ„) ËÁ ɇ̄ÓÚ½Ë Í Î‰ÌËÍÛ ÉÓÏÛ;, ÙÓÚÓ 170. îÓÚÓ„‡Î½¼, ÙÓÚÓ„½‡ÙËË à̉ËË alias scriptures.ru/india/uttarakhand/gangotri/gomukh170… (accessed 2011.12.04). NOTE 2: Till today Gangotri bamak (Gangotri glacier) is one of the largest Himalayan glaciers, retreating since the "Little Ice Age" in the late 18th century (OWEN & SHARMA 1996; earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=4594 accessed 2011.12.04). It is a valley-type glacier flowing from N30°43'22": E079°16'34": 7000 m asl north-west to N30°55'49": E079°04'41": 4120 m asl (NAITHANI et al 2001) and more or less currently measures not only some 25 km in length, covering 14'358 square kilometres (SANGEWAR 1998) but also is about 30.20 km long with its width varying from 0.5 to 2.5 km (NAITHANI et al 2001: 87-88) or is about 30 km long and 2 to 4 km wide with an estimated volume of over 27 cubic kilometres (Anonymous, undated, on en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangotri_Glacier accessed 2011.12.04). NOTE 3: »Subterranean channels also feed the Bhagirathi at Gaumukh below the glacier« (NAITHANI et al. 2001: 89 referring to »Thakur, V C; Virdi, N S; Gergan, J T; Mazarai, R K; Chaujar, S K & Philip, G (1991) Scientific report submitted to DST, New Delhi« -- not identified). NOTE 4: »Nothing in all their religion is so dear to devout Hindus as the Ganges. The mysterious cavern in the Himalayas which is supposed to be the source of the river is the most sacred place on earth. It is the fifth head of Siva, and for 1,600 miles to its delta every inch of the banks is haunted with gods and demons, and has been the scene of events bearing upon the faith of two-thirds of the people of India. The most pious act, and one that counts more than any other to the credit of a human soul on the great books above, is to make a pilgrimage from the source to the mouth of the Ganges. If you have read Kipling's story of "Kim", you will remember the anxiety of the old lama to find this holy stream, and to follow its banks. Pilgrims to Benares and other cities upon the Ganges secure bottles of the precious water for themselves and send them to friends and kindred in foreign lands. No river in all the world is so worshiped, and to die upon its sacred banks and to have one's body burned and his ashes borne away into oblivion upon its tawny current is the highest aspiration of hundreds of millions of people« (AITKEN 1992). NOTE 5: The »montagne di Naugracote« or »montagne di Naugracot« (TOSI 1669, 1: 6) relate vaguely to Kashmir which lies above / north of Nagarkot, an ancient fortess near Kangra (N32°06': E076°16'), currently in the plains of Himachal Pradesh. NOTE 6: TOSI (1669, 1: 8): Nothing certain is known about the source of the Ganges. Some say that it rises -- like the Indus / Hydaspes -- from in the »montagne di Naugracot« [mountains above Nagarkot] and others think that the very first source lies in a more far away region where it rises in the »monti della Scithia« (mountains of Scythia) and takes a strait / narrow course to a mountain which remotely resembles the head of a cow … [and] gushes, so-to-say, from this bovine, and flows amply from this animal's tap. NOTE 7: Shastra »The religious law-books of the Hindus« (IMPERIAL GAZETTEER 1907-1909, 25: xxv). »An inspired or revealed book; also any book of instruction, particularly such as contain revealed ordinances« (HAMILTON, W 1828, 2: 731). NOTE 8: [The river] Ganga, which is called Ganges by Europeans but by the indigenous [people] Gang or Ganga, is not only the largest river of India but also the most copiously aquatic. NOTE 9: Gangotri N30°59': E078°56' (nima.mil/geonames accessed 16.11.2003): 3042 m (LONELY PLANET 2005: 436) or 3071 m (10'070 ft. PRANAVANANDA 1949 edited 1983: 157 note 1) »… is about six miles from Bhairo Ghati« (SKINNER 1832, 2: 48). NOTE 10: »Bhojbasa (3790 m)« (LONELY PLANET, India 2009: 482) or »a GMVN Tourist Rest House at Bhojbasa« (LONELY PLANET, North India 2001: 504) is probably the same as »Bhojpatra (i.e. birch) jungle« (HODGSON 1822: 106). In any case, it is Betula utelis, which is said to occur as pioneers on scree, rock and steep slopes (SCHWEINFURTH 1968: Vegetation of the Himalaya.- in: LAW, B C 1968, editor: Mountains and rivers of India.- 21st International Geographical Congress, India.- pp. 110-136). NOTE 11: The Ganges passes through one »Détroit de Coupelé« (CROIX 1722, 3: 131), »defile of Coupele« (DARBY 1723, 2: 78) or »valley of Kupila« (ELLIOT 1871, 3: 511) and »quinze mille a chemin plus haut« (CROIX 1722, 3: 131), »fifteen miles higher« (DARBY 1723, 2: 78) or »fifteen kos higher up« (ELLIOT 1871, 3: 511) is a rock cut into the shape of a cow, and from this rock rises the great river. NOTE 12: Roughly said: It impossible to define from which of the many "lacunas" (holes, pools, caves) the river Ganges rises because not only a smaller but also a larger spring is noted. At this point, the question "falls" [arises] if the Ganges is one of the four rivers flowing from the Paradise … NOTE 13: »Beschan is the same with Vishnu, the preserving deity« (RENNEL 1781: 87 toenote for the name »Beschan« in RENNEL 1781: 87 * footnote). NOTE 14: Compare the Cavern in the –>Himaleh Mountain. NOTE 15: Not seen: Father REGIS: »Observ. geogr. and hist. sur la carte du Tibet: dans l'hist. de la China, 4. 570, &c.« (COLEBROOKE 1810 ed. 1812 430 footnote). GAUBIL, P [Pere] (1729): [unknown title: Putala, Ganges].- In –>Souciet (1729) vol. 1, note "D", pp. 138-140 with map on plate 8, figure 5 Is said to provide a relatively small map relating to the location of the source of the river Ganges (BERNOULLI 1788 [vol. 2] part 1: 140 after ANQUETIL du PERRON "Recherches etc." p. 435 (455) - 460 note D). NOTE 16: »Gangotri seu Cataracta Gangis, quam etiam Os Vaccae appellant: ex rupe præceps actus, in foveam amplam et pofundam illabitur. Jacet in 33° circiter gradu. lat. borealis, 75° long.« (Tiefenthaler, J circa 1775 in: BERNOULLI 1786, 2: 280). NOTE 17: Webb, Capt. William Spencer (1784-1865) became surveyor of Kumaon 1815-21 (Bill Buxton 2003 billbuxton.com/dramatis.html accessed 28.05.2004). NOTE 18: RAPER, [Captain] F V [Felix V] (1810): Narrative of a survey for the purpose of discovering the sources of the Ganges.- Asiatic Researches (Calcutta), vol. 11, (article no. 10): 446-563. Folded location map.RAPER, [Captain] F V [Felix V] (1812): Narrative of a survey for the purpose of discovering the sources of the Ganges.- Asiatic Researches (London), vol. 11, (article no. 10): 446-563. Folded location map. Reprint of the 1810 Calcutta edition.NOTE 19: »It may be remarked that the Moonshee sent towards this place by Messrs. Webb and Raper alludes to, and, indeed, describes this rock. The relation of his journey affords a singular mixture of marks of truth and authenticity with falsehood and error, creating a complete indecision in my mind whether he really reached Gungotree or not« (FRASER 1820: 474). NOTE 20: »The first object of inquiry that naturally occurrs to the traveller, after casting a glance over the general landscape is the source of the river. Here, as at Jumnotree, you are told that no mortal has gone, or can go further towards its extreme origin than this spot; and the difficulty is indeed very apparent. I made a trial to gain a point about two furlongs beyond the temple, both for the purpose of observing the course of the river and of seeing Gungotree in another point of view. But having with considerable difficulty made my way over the unsteady fragments for some hundred yards, at the risk of being precipitated into the stream, I was forced to turn back. The precipices beyond descend more abruptly to the water's edge, and in all probability it would be nearly impossible to make one's way along their face. Crossing the stream to take advantage of easier places on either side to pass along is out of the question; it is too large and too rapid, and climbing the mountain side higher up is equally so, for the crags increase in ruggedness and steepness till they end in snow« (FRASER 1820: 469-470). NOTE 21: »Ice Cave in the Glacier, Goumukh« (The European Library uk, online: europeana.eu/portal/record/92037/), photograph no. 1543: "The source of the Ganges", 23.4 by 29.4 cm (POHLMANN & SIEGERT 2001: 6).
A natural glacier cave in the ice of the glacier snout (note 1) of the Gangotri Bamak (note 2) is the source (note 3) of the river Ganges (note 4), which is known as the Bhagirathi until it joins the Yamuna at Deoprayag. ETYMOLOGY -- Gaumukh, from "gau" (Sanskrit), the word for cow, combined with "mukh" (Sanskrit), face, mouth: 1669 »Non hà cosi certa la sua scaturigine il Gange, mentre alcuni dalle stesse montagne di Naugracot [note 5] gli danno la mossa, & altri riconoscendo da più rimoto clima il principo vogliono, che nasca da i monti della Scithia, e che passando per l'angustie d'alcune montagne, che di lontano fano sembianza con la sommità loro del capo d'vna Vacca, adorati perciò da quei superstitiosi Gentili con molto veneratione, sgorga quasi dalla bocca, di quell'animale in vn'ampio stagno [note 6]« (TOSI 1669, 1: 6). 1776 »La sourge du Gange est inconnue et elle ne sera jamais découverte; parce que eau de la Bouche de (la) vache, les chemins sont impracticables« (Tiefenthaler 1776 in: BERNOULLI 1788 [vol. 2] part 1: 132). 1781 »… the rock or cavern still preserves the name of Gowmooky, or Cow's-head« (RENNEL 1781: 87 footnote). 1817 Captain John Anthony Hodgson (1777-1848) identified the stream's »first appearance« and describes how »From the brow of this curious wall of snow [glacier snout], and immediately above the outlet of the stream, large and hoary icicles depend; they are formed by the freezing of the melted snow water. … The Gangotri Brahmin who came with us and who is only an illiterate mountaineer, observed, that he thought these icicles must be Mahádévas hair, from when, as he understood, it is written in the Shástra [note 7], the Ganges flows. I mention this, thinking it a good idea, but the man had never heard of such a place, as actually existing, nor had he, or any other person to his knowledge, ever been here. In modern times they may not, but Hindus of Research may formerly have been here, and if so, I cannot think of any place to which they might more aptly give the name of a Cow's Mouth, than to this extraordinary Debouche« (HODGSON 1822: 117-118). 1820 »The old popular idea that the Ganges issued from a rock, like a cow's mouth (Gae Moukh), did not fail to occur to me« (FRASER 1820: 473). 1828 Another »celebrated Cow's Mouth« (SKINNER 1832, 2: 39), the –>Gaumukh at Bhairo Ghati, had been pointed out on 10th June 1828 to Captain Thomas SKINNER (1832, 2: 40-41). 1949 »The actual and glacial source of the Ganges … The snout of the glacier is conceived, by the Hindus, as the mouth of a cow, the front of the glacier as the face, and two of the prominent snow peaks of Satopanth (23,240 feet) on the north of the glacier as the horns, hence the name Gau-mukh (cow-mouth) …« (PRANAVANANDA 1949 edited 1983: 157 note 1). 2001 »Gangotri is probably the single most holy spot in India. In fact, the physical source of the river, the 'Cow's Mouth', is 18 km farther north at Gaumukh …« (LONELY PLANET, North India 2001: 504). ETYMOLOGY -- Gangotri, apparently from the Sanskrit "Ganga Avatar" (SKINNER 1832, 2: 48). 1814 »Four of the five places called Prayag, all celebrated as places of great sanctity for bathing, were in this principality [Garhwal], as is also the source of the most sacred of rivers, called therefore the Ganggotri, or source of the river« (BUCHANAN HAMILTON 1819: 302). ETYMOLOGY -- Ganga / Ganges: »The proper name of this river in the language of Hindoostan (or Indostan) is Pudda or Padda. It is also named Burra-Gonga, or the Great River; and Gonga, the River, by way of eminence; and from this, doubtless, the European names of the river are derived« (RENNEL 1781: 87 footnote). 1765 »Ganga, qui Europaeis Ganges dicitur, indigenis vero Gang, et Ganga, fluviorum Indiae maximus [est], tum ob aquarum copiam [note 8] …« (Father "Iosephus Thieffenthaler“ [Joseph Tiefenthaler] 1765 in: BERNOULLI 1785-1788, 2.1 [1788]: 175). LOCATION: Gaumukh and the glacier snout of the Gangotri bamak is said to lie from the mandal (temple) of Gangotri (note 9) at walking distances of 18 km LONELY PLANET, North India (2001: 504) 21 km or »13 miles« in: PRANAVANANDA (1949 edited 1983: 157 note 1) at elevations identified as 3890 m LONELY PLANET, India (1997: 419), LONELY PLANET, North India 2001: 504). 3892 m AUDEN (1937) -- not seen -- is said to have »indicated an elevation for Gaumukh to be 3892 m by plane table method in 1935« (SANGEWAR 1998: 135) 3931 m PURI (1990) -- not seen (SANGEWAR 1998: 135) 3950 m or »12'960 feet« (GRIESBACH 1891 -- not seen -- in: SANGEWAR 1998: 135) 3950 m TEWARI (1970) -- not seen -- is said to have calculated »the elevation of snout to be about 3950 m asl« (SANGEWAR 1998: 135). 4000 m not seen: VOHRA (1988 in SANGEWAR 1998: 135) 4085 m PRANAVANANDA (1949 edited 1983: 157 note 1) 4120 m NAITHANI et al. (2001: 87, 89) near positions recorded as N 30°50' E 79°10' unspecified geodetic datum perhaps WGS84; Anonymous on en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangotri_Glacier (accessed 2011.12.04). N 30°55'49” E079°04'41” unspecified geodetic datum perhaps Everest 1830; NAITHANI et al. (2001: 87, 89 figure 2, 90 table 2) N 33° E 73° unspecified geodetic datum perhaps Ferro; BERNOULLI (1788 [vol. 2], part 1: 119 after »Tieffenthaler« i.e. Tiefenthaler, J). APPROACH 2009: »The trek (38 km return) from Gangotri to the source of the river at Gaumukh (the Cow's Mouth) now requires a permit from the District Forest Officer (phone 222444) in Uttarkashi. The permit costs Rs 50 / 350 per Indian / foreigner, valid for two days, and the trek is restricted to 150 people per day. From Gangotri temple, it's 14 km (six hours) to Bhojbasa (3790 m) … then 5 km (three hours) to the dramatic Gaumukh Glacier, which has a 500 m exclusion zone« (LONELY PLANET, India 2009: 482). APPROACH 2005: The trek to Gaumukh and back (38 km) can be done in three days with a two-night stop at Bhojbasa (3790 m), which lies 14 km (six hours) from Gangotri temple, but only 5 km (three hours) from »the dramatic Gaumukh Glacier« (LONELY PLANET, India 2005: 436). APPROACH 2001: »There are some spectacular treks into the mountains surrounding Gangotri, but these take you into the politically sensitive area close to the Tibetan border. The easiest is the overnight trip to Gaumukh, which follows a bridle trail for 18 km along the true right of the Bhagirathi River. There are a number of pilgrim rest stops and a GMVN Tourist Rest House at Bhojbasa [note 10], just 4 km short of Gaumukh (3890 m). Beyond Gaumukh, it's possible to continue on to the meadow at Tapovan …« (LONELY PLANET, Northern India 2001: 504). APPROACH 1997: »Gangotri to Gaumukh and Tabovan -- The popular pilgrimage destination of Gangotri can be reached from Rishikesh by bus via Tehri and Uttarkashi, a 10 to 12 hour journey. The trek to the source of the holy Ganges starts from the village of Gangotri and follows a bridle trail along the true right [orographically?] of the Bagirathi River. There are a number of established pilgrim rest stops with adequate shelter and food on the way to Gaumukh (3980 m) … the true source of the Ganges« (LONELY PLANET, India 1997: 419). APPROACH 1992: In the last few kilometres to the »ice cave« (sic! qua: glacier cave in ice) the path gets lost in a tumble of rocks (AITKEN 1992: 79). SITUATION 1925: »… the glacier cavern from which the head-waters issue. It is at Gangotri, in the state of Tehri« (FOSTER 1925 edited 1985: 294). APPROACH 1828, June 10th: »Gungoutri … There is no road beyond, and, with all the effort possible, I question whether a traveller could penetrate much more than a mile further: The river about a quarter mile beyond Gungoutri winds to the eat, towards the high mountain of the Rudru Himmaleh [Rudughara Dhar], in which it is believed to have its source« (SKINNER 1832, 2: 67). »After scrambling, with very little advantage, up the precipituous banks that bound the river above Gungoutri, I resolved to abandon any hopes of reaching beyond the imaginary and sacred head of the Ganges« (SKINNER 1832, 2: 69-70). APPROACH 1817, May 29th to 31st: Captain John Anthony Hodgson (1777-1848) dedicates 17 pages to a detailed log of his route between the Gangotri mandal and the »first appearance« or source of the »B'hágirat'hi or Ganges« (HODGSON 1822: 104-120). SITUATION 1765: »… Gangae majoris quidem ostia sunt in 22do gradu latitudinis borealis profita: Minoris vero ostium non habet plures, quam viginti unum et 45 serupula: fontes tamen hodieque sunt incogniti. Sed si conjectari licet scaturigo rejecta est ad 37mum vel 38mun latitudinis borealealis gradum, ab insula Ferro 100 circiter gradus remota« (Father "Iosephus Thieffenthaler“ [Joseph Tiefenthaler] 1765 in: BERNOULLI 1785-1787, 2.1 [1788]: 175). SITUATION 1733: »Von der Quelle und dem Laufe des Ganges findet man folgende Nachricht in den Handschriften des Hrn. Gentil … "Der Ganges … hat seinen Ursprung, wie man vorgibt, denn man weiß nichts gewisses darüber, am Flusse [sic! qua: Fusse] des Berges Patamback, der Gränze der Tartarey; von da kommt er, nachdem er sich noch um den Fuß anderer Berge geschlungen hat, in die Gebirge von Comahon [Kumaon], und von diesen letzteren, nach Arduar [Haridwar N29°58': E078°10'], Garmucteser, in der Subah Dehli [Delhi province], nach …« (GENTIL 1773 in: BERNOULLI 1788: 166 after ANQUETIL du PERRON 1784). SITUATION 1697: MARBLE COW 1454.1: Sharafuddin ALI YAZDI (1454) is interpreted to have learned about the river Ganges rising from »une Statuë de marbre, representant un Vache« or »une pierre taillée en forme de Vache« (CROIX 1722, 3: 131 after Cherefeddin Ali d'Yazd), and STONE COW 1454.1: »Stone Cow Worship'd by the Guebres« (DARBY 1793, 2 map) that is a »marble statue of a cow ador'd by the Indians« or »stone carv'd in form of a cow, from whence spring this great river« (DARBY 1793, 2: 78 after Cherefeddin Ali of Yezd). COW's MOUTH 1454.3: »The valley of Kupila is situated at the foot of a mountain by which the river Ganges passes. Fifteen kos higher up there is a stone in the form of a cow, and the water of the river flows out of the mouth of that cow. The infidels of India worship this cow, and come hither from all quarters, from distances even of a year's journey, to visit it. They bring here and cast into the river the ashes of their dead whose corpses have been burned, believing this to be the means of salvation. They throw gold and silver into the river; they go down alive into the river, bathe their feet, sprinkle water on their heads, and have their heads and beards shaved. This they consider to be an act of devotion, just as the Muhammadans consider the pilgrimage to Mecca a pious work« (ELLIOT 1871, 3: 511-512 after Sharafuddín Yazdí). COW's HEAD 1625 »… where the famous river Ganges seemed to begin, issuing out of a rocke which the superstitious Gentiles imagine to bee like a cowes head, which of all sensible creatures they love best. Thither they likewise goe in troopes daily for to wash their bodies« (TERRY, Edward 1616-1619 edited by Purchas, Samuel 1625 part 2, book 9, chapter 6; edited by Foster, William 1925 reprinted 1985: 294). STONE COW 1722: »Le Détroit de Coupelé est situé au pied d'une montagne par où passe le Gange, & à quinze milles de chemin plus haut que ce Détroit, Il y a une pierre taillée en forme de Vache, de laquelle pierre sort la source de ce grand Fleuve [note 11]« (CROIX 1722, 3: 131). STONE COW 1723: »Stone Cow Worship'd by the Guebres« is indicated on the »Map of the expedition of Tamerlan in the Indies« (DARBY 1723, 2) and interpreted as »a marble statue of a cow ador'd by the Indians« (DARBY 1723, 2: 78). Then we are told that »the defile of Coupele is situate at the foot of a mountain near the Ganges; and fifteen miles higher than this defile is a stone carv'd in the form of a cow, from whence springs this great river« (DARBY 1723, 2: 78). SPRING DESCRIPTION 1765: »Numerus lacunarum, quas inde a fontibus usque ad ostia decurrit, definiri non potest; nam esti ostia utriusque Gangae, majoris et minoris nota sunt: … Certiora, si fontes Gangae proprius adeundi occasio fuerit, aliàs ad Europaeos transmittenda. Antequam cursum Gangae describere aggredior, quaestionem jucundam aeque ac utilem in medium proferre juvat: An Ganga unus ex quatuor fluviis, qui ex Paradiso emanant? [note 12]« (Father "Iosephus Thieffenthaler“ [Joseph Tiefenthaler] 1765 in: BERNOULLI 1785-1788, 2.1 [1788]: 175). CAVERN DESCRIPTION 1781: »The fabulous account of the origin of the Ganges (as communicated by my learned and ingenious friend C. W. Boughton Rouse, Esq.) is, that it flows out of the foot of Beschan [note 13] from whence, say the Bramins, it has its name Padda; that word signifying foot in the Sancrit language; and that in its course to the plains of Hindoostan it passes through an immense rock shaped like a Cow's-head. The allegory is highly expressive of the veneration which the Hindoos have for this famous stream; and no less so of their gratitude to the Author of Nature for bestowing it: for it described the blessing as flowing purely from his bounty and goodness. The rock before mentioned has, I believe, never been visited by any European; and is even allowed by most of the natives to bear no resemblance to the object from whence it is denominated. However, as the effects of superstitions do often long survive the illusions that gave it birth, the rock or cavern still preserves the name of Gowmooky, or Cow's-head« (RENNEL 1781: 87 footnote). DESCRIPTION 1788 »Jetzt will ich den Ganges bey der Quelle nehmen, oder, wie unser Reisende sagt, "von dem berühmeten Maul der Kuh, einem Wasserfall … Die wahre Quelle des Ganges ist, nach unserem Missionarius, unbekannt; und möchte wohl nie entdeckt werden, da jenseits dem Maul der Kuh die Wege unbetretbar sind.“ Der gelehrte Missionarius wird mir erlauben, hier von seiner Meinung abzuweichen. Es ist in der Welt kein Weg so ganz unbetretbar. Nach unserem Missionarius und Geographen, stürzt der Ganges, in the Gebirgen von Thibet, ohngefehr unter 33 Gr. nördl. Breite und 73 Gr. Länge (den ersten Meridian durch das Pariser Observatium), aus einem Felsen in eine breite und tiefe Höhlung, und bildet den Wasserfall, genannt Gangotri. Die Oeffnung des Felsens, (der einer Kuh gleichen soll 1), heisset das Maul der Kuh« (BERNOULLI, J 1785-1788, 2.1 [1788]: 98 after »Tieffenthaler« i.e. Joseph Tiefenthaler, also: Tieffenthaller). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1793: »The Ganges after draining Tibet passes under the Himalaya through a natural tunnel. This great body of water forces a passage through the ridge of Mount Himalaya, and sapping its very foundations rushes through a cavern [note 14] and precipitates itself into a vast basin which it has worn in the rock at the hither foot of the mountains. The Ganges thus appears to incurious spectators to derive its original springs from this chain of mountains, and the mind of superstition has given to the mouth of the cavern the form of the head of a cow, an animal held by the Hindus in a degree of veneration almost equal to that in which the Egyptians of old held their God Apis« (BURRARD & HAYDEN 1907: 137 after RENNEL 1793 not seen). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1817, 31st May: »The B'hágirat'hi or Ganges issues from under a very low arch at the foot of the grand snow bed. The river is here bounded to the right and left by high snow and rocks; but in front, over the Debouche, the mass of snow is perfectly perpendicular, and from the bed of the stream to the summit, we estimate the thickness at little less than 300 feet of solid frozen snow, probably the accumulation of ages; it is in layers of some feet thick, each seemingly the remains of a fall of a separate year. From the brow of this curious wall of snow, and immediately above the outlet of the stream, large and hoary icicles depend; they are formed by the freezing of the melted snow water of the top of the bed, for in the middle of the day the sun is powerful, and the water produced by is action falls over this place, in cascade, but is frozen at night. … The height of the arch of snow is only sufficient to let the stream flow under it. Blocks of snow were falling about us, so there was little time to do more here, than measure the size of the stream. Measured by a chain, the mean breadth was 27 feet [8.2 m]. The greatest depth at that place being knee deep, or 18 inches [0.45 m], but more generally a foot deep, and rather less just at the edges, say 9 or 10 inches [0.23 m to 0.3 m], however -- call the mean depth 13 inches [0.33 m]« (HODGSON 1822: 117-118). Pushing for some distance beyond the stream's »first appearance«, the snow and boulder strewn glacier's »surface is rugged, and broken into chasms, rifts, and ravines of snow with steep sides« (HODGSON 1822: 120). »Perhaps indeed, some of those various chasms and rents in the snow bed, which intersect it in all sort of irregular directions, may occasionally let in the light on some part of the bed of the stream, but the general line and direction of it could only be guessed at, as it is altogether here far below the broken snowy surface« (HODGSON 1822: 122). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1828.1: »Ganges … The Bhagirathi, or true Ganges, issues (about lat. 31° N., lon. 79° E.) from under a very low arch, at the base of a great mass of solid frozen snow, about 300 feet perpendicular height, composed of layers, each several feet thick, and probably the accumulation of ages. From the brow of this wall large and hoary icicles depend, whence may have originated the mythological fable of the Ganges issuing from the hair of Mahadeva. The height of the snow arch is only sufficient to let the river flow under it. The mean breadth of the stream, where it issues, on the 31st of May 1808 [sic! qua: 1817] was twenty-seven feet [8.2 m], and the mean depth about 12 inches [0.30 m]; such is the diminutive apparition of the young goddess who ultimately rolls a flood into the ocean ten miles broad« (HAMILTON 1828, 1: 556). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1828.2: »Gangoutri … celebrated place of pilgrimage in Northern Hindostan, situated among the Himalaya mountains, near to which the river Ganges issues into day from under an immense mound of snow (Captain Hodgson, Herbert, Raper & c.)« (HAMILTON 1828, 1: 560). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1907: »Rennell [see above: RENNEL 1793] was relying upon the descriptions given to him by travellers : what he thought was a cavern under the Himalaya was merely the ice-cave at the end of the Gangotri glacier, from which the Bhagirathi issues« (BURRARD & HAYDEN 1907: 137). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1908: »Ganges (Ganga) … issues under the name of Bhagirathi from an ice cave at the foot of a Himalayan snow-bed near Gangotri, 13,800 feet [4206 m] above the level of the sea« (IMPERIAL GAZETTEER 1907-1909, 12: 132). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1937: AUDEN (1937: 135-141) -- not seen -- is said to report that »the Bhagirathi River originates at the snout known as Gaumukh (4120 m a.s.l.) of the glacier located at the northern most end of the glacier« (NAITHANI et al. 2011: 89). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1949: Gaumukh 13'570 feet (PRANAVANANDA 1949 edited 1983: 157 note 1) or 4085 m asl. CAVE DESCRIPTION 1956: An unspecified »Janpangi (1958)« -- not identified -- is said to report that there were two distict »ice caves« (sic! qua: glacier caves) in the glacier snout of the Gangotri bamak (SANGEWAR 1998: 135). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1971: »… snout situated at a height of 4000 m consists of a 40 m high ice wall and a large ice cave (30 m by 20 m) in the middle parts of the glacier terminus« (unspecified »Vohra (1971)« -- not identified -- noticed by SANGEWAR 1998: 135).
CAVE DESCRIPTION 1992: »The ice cave is much smaller than the inspiring accounts of the early travellers indicate but its shrunken dimensions still give rise to the full force of a mature river which booms up from under a green curtain of ice. Nothing remotely resembles the mouth of a cow but the reason for this is that the cave is receding by the day and conjures up different images according to the season. […] The raging sound of the rushing river helps overwhelm the presence of the slag heaps of sooty moraine that accompany glacial scenery. For the beauty you have come and it is found -- but within the cave. Not just in the green ice of the cavern but in that real seat of satisfaction -- the heart of the devotee« (AITKEN 1992: 79). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1996: »Prsent day Ice cave [sic![ is arcuate in shape and towards eastern margin of the glacier. … the ice cave retreat is insignificant for knowing the glacier regime but … [the existence of] two ore more ice caves, as in 1956 [JANGPANGI 1958], indicates a faster degeneration of the glacier« (SANGEWAR 1998: 135). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1999: »The ice cave that was active during 1962 has become extinct and new ice caves have been formed along the easternmost and westernmost edges of the snout. From 1962 to October 1999, the snout has retreated by 1.25 km. The main glacial stream emerges out from the easterly ice cave and now is treated as the main snout. The ice cave is nearly 35 m wide at its opening and becomes narrow towards the interior… Huge blocks of ice cover the floor of the cave. The stream water flows at considerable pressure along the eastern wall of the cave. Along the margin of the ice cave, two prominent crevasses have formed along the N30°W and W-E directions. They incline almost vertically and the surface moraines tumble down into such crevasses. The crevasses along the upper surface of the glacier extend over 400 m upstream. Minor longitudinal crevasses have been found within the ice cave …« (NAITHANI et al. 2001: 93). CULTURAL HISTORY: »Most rivers in India have sanctity attached to them, but the Ganges is especially sacred. Its importance in Vedic literature is slight, but in the epics and Puranas it receives much attention. Sagar, the 38th king of the Solar Dynasty, had performed the great horse-sacrifice (asvamedha) ninety-nine times. In this ceremony the horse wandered over the world, unhaltered and never guided or driven. Every country it entered was conquered by the following army, and on its return it was sacrificed to the gods. When Sagar drove out the horse for the hundredth time, the god Indra stole it and tied it up in Patal (the underworld) near the place where a sage, Kapila Muni, was meditating. Sagar had two wives, one of whom bore Asmanjas, and the other had sixty thousand sons who were following the horse. The sons found it, and believing Kapila to be the thief abused him, and were consumed to ashes in consequence of the sage's curse. Ansman, son of Asmanjas, had gone in search of his uncles, and finding the horse took it home. Garuda, the mythical half-man, half-bird, king of the snakes, told him that the sin of those who had abused Kapila, could best be removed by bringing to earth the Ganges, which then flowed in heaven (Brahma Lok). In spite of much prayer and the practise of austerities by Ansman and his son, Dalip, this could not be brought about; but Bhagirath, son of Dalip, persuaded Brahma to grant him a boon, and he chose the long-sought permission to allow the Ganges to flow on this world. Brahma agreed, but told Bhagirath that the earth could not sustain the shock, and advised him to consult Shiva, who consented to break the force of the river by allowing it to fall on his head. The ice-cavern beneath the glacier, from which the stream descends, is represented as the tangled hair of Shiva. One branch, the Mandakini, still flows through Brahma Lok; a second, which passes through Patal, washed away the sins of the sixty thousand; and the third branch is the Ganges« (IMPERIAL GAZETTEER 1907-1909, 12: 134-135).
Documents
Bibliography 28/03/2016- Aitken, Bill 1992. Ali Yazdi 1454. Bernoulli, Johann 1788. Bourne, Samuel 1866 edited by Pohlmann, Ulrich & Siegert, Dietmar 2001. Burrard, Sidney Gerald & Hayden, Henry Hunter 1907. Croix, François Pétis de La 1722. Curtis, William Eleroy 1904, 2004. Darby John 1723. Elliot, Henry Miers 1871. Fraser, James Baillie 1820. Gilli, Eric 1986, 1992. Grötzbach, Erwin 1994. Hamilton Buchanan, Francis 1819, 2009. Hamilton, Walter 1828. Hodgson, John Anthony 1822. Imperial Gazetteer 1907-1909. Le Saux, Henri alias: Abhishiktananda 1966, 1967, 1968, 1970. Le Saux, Henri alias: Abhishiktananda (edited by Baumer, Odette & Panikkar, Raimondo) 1994. Lonely Planet, India 2005, 2009, 2011. Lonely Planet, North India 2001. Mackenzie, Simon P M & Tamura, Hitoschi 1981, 1982. Naithani, Ajay K; Nainwal, H C; Sati, K K & Prasad C 2001. Pranavananda [Kanakadandi Venkata Somayajulu] 1949. Ramachandran R 2001. Rennell, James 1781. Sangewar, C V 1998. Sharma, Milap Chand & Owen, Lewis A1996. Simpson, William 1867. Skinner, Thomas 1832, 1833, 1837. Terry, Edward 1616-1619 edited by Purchas, Samuel 1625, 1655, 1777, edited by Foster, William 1925, 1985. Tiefenthaler, Joseph 1765. Webb, W S 1820. White G F, Allom T & Kerno, J H (s.a.). FURTHER READING -- not seen: Amado, Pierre 1978: Les sources sacrees du Gange.- L’Histoire. ISSN 0182-2411 (Paris : Société d'éditions scientifiques), vol. 7, (12 Décembre 1978): 53-67.Anquetil Duperron, Abraham - Hyacinthe 1784: Carte général du cours du Gange … (Paris). Auden, J B 1937: Snout of the Gangotri glacier, Tehri Garhwal.- Records of the Geological Survey of India. ISSN 0370-5226 (Calcutta: Government of India), LXXII, vol. 72, (part 2): 135-140. Bernoulli, Jean 1789: Description historique et géographique de l’Indostan … (Berlin: C S Spener). Gentil 1773: Abrégé historique et géographique de l'Indoustan ou Empire Mogol, ecrit à Faizabad, en 1773.- in: »Recherches 2e Pe. p. 503. 504« (BERNOULLI 1788: 166 footnote ** after ANQUETIL du PERRON 1784). Griesbach, Carl Ludolf (1891): Geology of the Central Himalaya.- Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. ISSN 0369-0024 (Calcutta: Government of India), vol. 23: 1-232 + 27 plates. Two geological maps, 31 monochrome photographs in the text. Gaubil in: Souciet (1729): Observations mathematiques, astronomiques, chronologiques et phys. etc. faites à la Chine etc.- (Paris) vol. 1, note "D", pp. 138-140 with map on plate 8, figure 5.Vohra, C P (1988): [ unknown title ].- Indian mountaineer. ISSN 0971-426X (New Delhi: Indian Mountaineering Foundation): 1-8 [Naithani et al. 2001: 94].Webb, William Spencer (1820): Memoir relative to a survey of Kumaon, with some account of the principles upon which it has been conducted.- Asiatic Researches. ISSN 0970-5457 (Calcutta: Government Gazette Press), vol. 13: 293-310.
History
EXPLORATION HISTORY: a.i »First ever mention of term Gaumukh, one comes across, is in a Chinese map compiled in 15th century to illustrate the travels of Chinese pilgrims to India« (eurekamag.com/keyword/g/032/gaumukh.php accessed 2011.12.04). »A map of Tibet [note 15] which had been constructed by persons in the retinue of a Chinese envoy, was put into the hands of Father REGIS, one of the missionaries at Pekin, in 1711« (COLEBROOKE 1810 ed. 1812 430). »Emperor Akbar is reported to have sent an expedition to locate the source of Ganga, who, on their return, mentioned the existence of, "A great cow's head sculptured out of the very rock, and from the mouth of this head issues a stream of water" thus by indirectly substantiating the usage of the term Gaumukh and its geographical existence during the 15th-16th century« (eurekamag.com/ accessed 2011.12.04). 1454 not seen: Sharafuddin ALI YAZDI (1454) is said to report »une Statuë de marbre, representant un Vache« or »une pierre taillée en forme de Vache« (CROIX 1722, 3: 131), a »Stone Cow Worship'd by the Guebres« (DARBY 1793, 2 map), or »marble statue of a cow ador'd by the Indians« and a »stone carv'd in form of a cow, from whence spring this great river« (DARBY 1793, 2: 78), or a »great cow's head sculptured out of the very rock, and from the mouth of this head issues a stream of water« (eurekamag.com/ accessed 2011.12.04). 1616-1619: Edward Terry had heard of Gaumukh (TERRY, Edward 1616-1619 edited by Purchas, Samuel 1625 part 2, book 9, chapter 6; 1655 edited 1777; edited by Foster, William 1925 edited 1985: 294). 1775 circa: Father Joseph Tiefenthaler (born 1710 August 27 at Bozen, Tyrol; died 1785 July 5 at Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh), had heard about »Gangotri seu Cataracta Gangis, quam etiam Os Vaccae appellant: ex rupe præceps actus, in foveam amplam et pofundam illabitur. Jacet in 33° circiter gradu. lat. borealis, 75° long. [note 16]« (Tiefenthaler cited by BERNOULLI 1786, 2: 280).[ Gangotri or the source of the Ganges, which is also called the Cow's Mouth, rises from a sudden cleft / cliff / rock and dashes into a wide and deep pit. It falls in about 33° northern latitude and 75° longitude.»Maul der Kuh« (mouth of the cow, Gaumukh) from which the river Ganges rises (BERNOULLI, J 1786, 2.1 [1788]: 98 after »Tieffenthaler« i.e. Joseph Tiefenthaler). FRASER, J B (1820: 473-474) had learned that »Father Tieffenthaller … takes notice of this cow's mouth« (FRASER, J B 1820: 473-474). 1781 »The fabulous account of the origin of the Ganges … is, that … in its course to the plains of Hindoostan it passes through an immense rock shaped like a Cow's-head … [which] has, I believe, never been visited by any European« (RENNEL 1781: 87 footnote). 1808 An unidentified »Moonshee sent … by Messrs. Webb and Raper« (FRASER 1820: 474) or »Raper's moonshee (whose name had not been recorded)« seems to have made it to where »the river Ganges issues into day from under an immese mound of snow« (HAMILTON 1828, 1: 560). »First ever sketch of the lower part of the Gangotri glacier, available to us, is that of William Princep made in 1808« (eurekamag.com/ accessed 2011.12.04). In the same year, Captain William Spencer Webb (note 17), who had been sent by Robert Colebrook, led a party that included Capt. Hyder Young Hearsey, and Capt. Raper (then Lieutenant) to explore and survey the source of the Ganges (note 18). They reached the source of the eastern branch near Badrinath (note 19) before being forced back by increasing Gurkha hostility (Bill Buxton 2003 billbuxton.com/dramatis.html accessed 28.05.2004, 2011.11.23). 1815 James Bailie Fraser (1783*-1856†), the 15th laird of Reelig, »leaving Dehlee on the 9th of March, 1815« (FRASER 1820: 56), eventually made it up to the temple at »Gungotree« (Gangotri) where he »made a trial to gain a point about two furlongs beyond the temple … having with considerable difficulty made my way over the unsteady fragments for some hundred yards, at the risk of being precipitated into the stream, I was forced to turn back« (note 20). »Mr. James Frazer [sic!] visited Gangotri in 1815, and was the first European who did so« (HODGSON 1822: 104). 1817 Captain John Anthony Hodgson (1777-1848) »… set out on the morning of the 29th of May, hoping to arrive at the head of the river in the course of the day. The two Gangotrí Brahmins could not give any information as to how far it might me distant; they had never been higher than Gangotrí, and assured us, that no persons ever went further, except the Múnshí, who appears, by the account in the Asiatic Researches, to have gone about two miles« (HODGSON 1822: 104). Only on the 31st of May 1817, Captain John Anthony Hodgson, his assistent Captain James Dowling Herbert (1791-1835), one of »the two Gangotrí Brahmins«, and »a few trusty fellows (Musulmans), 2 Gorc'ha Sipáhís, and a few Coolies« (HODGSON 1822: 115), arrived at »a mass of snow perfectly perpendicular« (glacier snout) where the »Bhágirathi or Ganges issues from under a very low arch at the foot of the grand snow bed« and »believing this to be, as I have every reason to suppose it is, the first appearance of the famous and true Ganges in day light, saluted her with a Bugle march …« (HODGSON 1822: 118). 1828 06.10-11: Captain Thomas Skinner (1800? - 1843) made it up to the temple at »Gungoutri« (SKINNER 1832, 2: 48, 56-72) where he »resolved to abandon any hopes of reaching beyond the imaginary and sacred head of the Ganges« (SKINNER 1832, 2: 69-70). 1828 HAMILTON, W (1828, 1: 556-559) describes the Ganges River after »Rennell, Colebrooke, Colonel Colebrooke, Hodgson and Herbert, Webb, Raper, the Moonshee, F. Buchanan, Fullarton, the Ramayana, Ward, &c.« 1866 Samuel Bourne (1834 October 20 to 1912 April 24) left Simla on the 3 July 1866, initially in the company of Dr. G. R. Playfair, and travelled through parts of Himachal Pradesh (Kulu, Lahaul, and over the Kunzum Pass into the Spiti valley). Supported by forty porters he continued on his own over the Manirung Pass (5670 m), where he took spectacular views, which held the record for the highest altitude photographs that had yet been taken for twenty years. Thence, down to the junction of the Spiti and Sutlej Rivers and on to Sangnam and the Buspa Valley. He then climbed up over the Neela Pass and down into the valley of the Bhagirathi, where he journeyed upstream to the Gangotri Glacier. Here, he photographed (with a 10x12 inch plate camera and using the complicated and laborious Wet Plate Collodion process) a view (note 21) of the Ganges as it issues from Gaumukh, the "mouth" (cave entrance) of the glacier cave in the snout of the Gangotri Bamak. His return journey took in Agra, Mussoorie, Roorkee, Meerut and Naini Tal before he arrived back in Simla for Christmas. The »… first ever photograph of Gaumukh is that of Samuel Bourne made in 1860 [sic! qua: 1866]« (eurekamag.com/ accessed 2011.12.04). 1889 not seen GRIESBACH (1891) »The earliest record of the snout (Gaumukh) of the Gangotri glacier is by Griesbach (1891) when he estimated the snout elevation to be 3950 m (12960 feet)« (SANGEWAR 1998: 135). »… the glacier had earlier been visited by and sketched by Griesbach of the Geological Survey of India, way back in 1889« (eurekamag.com/ accessed 2011.12.04).1935 not seen: AUDEN (1937) is said to have »indicated an elevation for Gaumukh to be 3892 m by plane table method in 1935« (SANGEWAR 1998: 135). »Survey of India published, in 1937, a properly surveyed map of the Gangotri glacier basin, showing the entire glacier and the position of Gaumukh« (eurekamag.com/ accessed 2011.12.04). 1956 not seen: JANPANGI (1958) is said to have recorded a retreat of the snout by 214 m in comparison to the year 1935 (SANGEWAR 1998: 135). 1967 not seen: TEWARI (1970) has recorded a retreat of 600 m since as compared to the position in 1935 and the elevation of snout was calculated to be about 3950 m asl (SANGEWAR 1998: 135). 1971 not seen: VOHRA (1971) is said to report a relatively large »ice cave« (entrance 30 m by 20 m large) at a snout elevation of 4000 m asl (SANGEWAR 1998: 135). 1974 not seen: PURI & SINGH (1974) are said to report a snout retreat of 27.34 m since 1971 (SANGEWAR 1998: 136). 1975 not seen: PURI (1975) is said to report a snout retreat of 35 m since 1974 (SANGEWAR 1998: 136). 1976 not seen: PURI (1976) is said to report a snout retreat of 38 m since 1975 (SANGEWAR 1998: 136). 1977 not seen: PURI (1977) is said to report a snout retreat of 30 m since 1976 (SANGEWAR 1998: 136). 1990 not seen: PURI (1990) is said to report a snout retreat of 28.08 m since 1977 (SANGEWAR 1998: 136). 1998: SANGEWAR (1998) reported a snout retreat of 28.33 m since 1996.
Caves nearby
| Distance (km) | Name | Length (m) | Depth (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5.3 | TABOVAN, Uttar Kashi (Caves at) | ||
| 5.3 | SHIMLA BABA, Tabovan (Cave of) | ||
| 5.3 | NANDAVAN (Caves at) | ||
| 15.0 | GANGOTRI SHELTERS | ||
| 20.4 | TAMAKUND CAVE | ||
| 21.4 | VYASA GUFA, Khandakhya | ||
| 21.6 | BHYRAM, Bhyramghattee (Cave of) | ||
| 21.6 | GAUMUKH, Bhairo Ghati | ||
| 21.6 | BHUMKODAAR |