LUNUGALA LENA

Herbert Daniel Gebauer - 06/01/2018

A north to NNE-east facing (PEET 1946 cave plan), 25 m wide and 11.7 m high (PEET 1946: 93) entrance leads to a large cave (CEYLON TRAVELLER 1974: 243, 1983: 245), which, upon entering, ascends by an angle of 39° towards approximate SSW, is the biggest in the area (LEITER 1948: 65) and one of the largest limestone caves of Ceylon (LEITER 1948: 61), famous for once having been exploited for nitre (saltpetre, potassium nitrate), and has formed by dissolution of crystalline and dolomitic, variable in composition and texture (COORAY 1956: 56) limestone of the Precambrian Khondalite Series (note 1). ETYMOLOGY 1946: The native name for Nitre Cave is -Lunugala- (white salt rock). One might take this to refer to the nitre but the whitest of that was not nearly so white as the limestone. We questioned, Panniah the guide was most emphatic upon the point that lunugala was limestone. Why the Tamils should have [a?] different name for the same rock ten miles apart is something of an enigma (PEET 146: 94). ETYMOLOGY 1974: Nitre Cave is … named after the thick layers of nitrate left from the droppings of bats over centuries (CEYLON TRAVELLER 1974: 243, 1983: 245). ETYMOLOGY 1973: When walking from Karambaketiya to Mimure one gets distant glimpses … of a rock with a white patch. It marks the situation of Nitre Cave. The villagers call it Lunugala (salt-rock) or Wawulagala (bat-rock). All these three names are most appropriate. The cave is the homing grounds of thousands of bats, and it is known to contain nitre or potassium nitrate or saltpetre which is a salt (=lunu). It speaks a lot of the innate intelligence of these remote villagers to have realised that the cave contains a chemical which is scientifically classed as a salt, this line of thinking being implied in the name Lunugala (URAGODA 1973: 39). ETYMOLOGY 2005: … the -Vedilunu Guhava- (Nita Caves) (GAMAGE 2005.08.06). Foreigners prefer to call it simply Nitre Cave (COOK 1931: 351) and specify this nitre cave by place nams like the starting points at Kandy and on the Corbett's Gap (note 2) or that of the village of Mimure, Mimura, Meemoorra, Meemora (note 3) on the approach to the cave, and by the name of the area Doombera (DAVY 1821: 31 note; HILL & FORTI 1986: 104; NEWBOLD 1846f: 266; PRIDHAM 1849, 2: 709), Dombera or Dumbara (COOK 1931: 351) in The Knuckles or Rangala (note 4). Simon J. Brooks (1995 Mss no 40) had decided to register not only the more impressive sounding but inadequate Nitre Cave (s) / The Nitre Caves but also a separate Alu-Lena / Alu-Galge (Brooks 1995 Mss no 40a). All in all, I saw this cave called, spelled, transcribed, or edited, printed and misprinted as Doombera, cave in DAVY (1821: 31 note item 32, 379-380) Doombera, cave near PRIDHAM (1849, 2: 663, 709) Meemoorra Cave FORBES (1840, 1841 vol. 2: 103 note); PRIDHAM (1849, 2: 663) Mensura, cavern near NEWBOLD, T J (1846f: 266) Memoora, cave at DAVY (1821: 31 note, 350, 379); PRIDHAM (1849, 2: 663, 709); DAVY (1822: 161) Memra Cave DAVY (1821: 33) Mimure, cave near BROHIER (1956); PEET (1945, 1946) Nita Caves, Meemure Anjana Gamage 2005.08.06, dailynews.lk/2005/08/06/fea10.htm (accessed 2009.10.02) Nitre Cave CEYLON TRAVELLER (1974: 243, 1983: 245); Eckrich, M. (1984 Mss); URAGODA (1973) Nitre Cave, Doombera DAVY (1821: 31 note item 32); HILL & FORTI (1986: 104) Nitre Cave, Kaikawala KUSCH (1973c: 23) Nitre Cave, Kandy WILSON (1988: 22) Nitre Cave, Knuckles COOK (1951: 351) Nitre Cave, Mimure CEYLON TRAVELLER (1974: 243, 1983: 245) Nitre Cave, Meemoorra FORBES (1840, 1841 vol. 2: 103 note); PRIDHAM (1849, 2: 663)Nitre Cave, Rangala BROHIER (1956); COORAY (1967: 97) Nitre Cave in Uda KUSCH (1973c: 23) Nitre Cave(s) Brooks, Simon J (1995 Mss no. 40) Nitre Caves, Peet 1945 WILSON (1988: 22) Nitro Caves lakdasun.com/trails/trail-14-nitro-caves (2009.01.21 accessed 2009.08.02) Salpeterhöhle DAVY (1822: 161)Wawulagala Lena URAGODA (1973: 39). POSITION 1946: N07°25'00”: E080°52'30” (unspecified geodetic datm probably Everest 1830 spheroid): 712 m asl (or 2365 feet Geoffrey A. Peet 1954 July in: PEET 1946). POSITION 2009: N07°25'03.8”: E080°52'13.9” (N07° 25.064': E080° 52.232' unspecified geodetic datum possibly WGS84): 673 m asl (GPS 2009.01.21 lakdasun.com/trails/trail-14-nitro-caves-from-corb… accessed 2009.08.02). SITUATION: In the Knuckles Wilderness (note 4) of the Rangala range (note 5), in the upper Heen Ganga basin, and in the obsolete Doombera district (DAVY 1821) which LEITER (1948: 61) decided to have been known as the Nitre Cave district (note 6). Dumbara is a … wide open valley lying to the east of Kandy, separated from it by hills and ridges, and containing a great deal of fertile land, on which cocoa and tobacco are successfully cultivated. The alluvial valley floors are used for paddy, and this region contains some of the finest paddy terraces in the Hill Country. The population, which was no doubt at one time more dispersed, has been attracte more and more to the main arteries of communication … (COOK 1931: 346). SITUATION 1821: Arriving from Kandy, and having descended, … the path divided; we quitted that most trodden, which led to the secluded village of Memoora, and entered another, just perceptible, leading off to the right, before which a few withered boughs were strewed to show that the way was prohibited. After an hour's hard walking over most difficult ground, we arrived at the object of our search. The first view of the place was exceedingly striking. A large cave appeared in a perpendicular face of rock about three hundred feet high crowned with forest, at the base of which was a stage or platform of rubbish, that seemed in danger of sliding into a deep wooded valley, closed in by mountains of considerable elevation and remarkable boldness (DAVY 1821: 379). SITUATION 1822: Die Höhle befindet sich in der Nähe des Dorfes Memoora, in einem Felsen von 300 Fuß Höhe, der oben mit Gehölz bewachsen ist, und in Gefahr u seyn scheint, in ein mit Holz bedecktes Thal herabzustürzen, welches rings umher mit hohen, kühn emporstrebenden Bergen umgeben ist (DAVY 1822: 161-162). SITUATION 1840: Meemoorra is a deep narrow valley beyond Lakagalla [note 7] ; and in the mountains which form the opposite side is a nitre cave, the most productive in the Kandian country, although the quantity it yielded was so trifling that it is not now worth working (FORBES 1840, 1841 vol. 2: 103 note). SITUATION 1849: Sometimes near Meemoorra (PRIDHAM 1849, 2: 663) but on other occasions near Doombera (PRIDHAM 1849, 2: 709). SITUATION 1931: In The Knuckles Group section of the Hill Country region, which is … cut off from the main mass, on the south of the Mahaweli Ganga Valley and on the west by the Matale Valley, the connecting link being the ridge which extends across the upper Matale Valley towards Wattegama. The central and eastern side of this region is wild country with no roads capable of taking anything more than a smal bullock cart, and almost uninhabited. … In olden days it was no doubt more inhabited, on account of its connection with the route from Dambulla to Alutnuwara, the chief entrance to this side of the Hill Country, now completely abandoned. … The western side of the region is considerably developed, mainly no doubt on account of its greater accessibility from the Kandy Plateau (COOK 1931: 351). SITUATION 1945: Nitre Cave is 45 miles [72.5 km] west of Kandy and is reached by following the Kandy - Teldeniya road (or rather jungle track) towards Rangala. … Little information seems to be available concerning Nitre Cave itself … Apparently it lies, probably among many other caverns, in a stretch of limestone country through which flows the Mahaveli and its tributary the Heen Ganga (PEET 1945: 69, 70).SITUATION 1948: Before the roads were built from the coast to the interior of the Island … Nitre Cave District … was not such an outlandish place as it is now, as then the highway from Matale [ote 8] to Badulla [note 9] passed through the district. In the District, centrally placed, is one of the largest limestone caves of Ceylon, purported to contain nitre … The easiest access to the Nitre Cave District is through Kandy - Teldeniya - Rangala to the Corbets [sic] Gap, which is the end of the motorable road -- altogether 28 miles [45 km] (LEITER 1948: 61). SITUATION 1956: … Central Province. As a fairly well-known feature one of the latter lends itself to distinguish the country off Rangala, known as the Nitre Cave district. This cave too, off the secluded village called Mimure has claimed Dr. Davy's attention. He stresses that his excursion into - the hitherto unexplored district of Doombera,- was chiefly for the purpose of examining the nitre cave … His first impression of the cave, he describes as - exceedingly striking.- It is perched on a perpendicular face of rock about three hundred feet high, on the side of a deep valley, closed in by mountains of considerable elevtion and remarkable boldness (BROHIER 1956). SITUATION 1967: COORAY (1967: 66, figure 24) gives a line-drawing of the Knuckles massive as seen from Wamarapugala mountain (5116 feet, 1560 m), which shows the location of Nitre Cave on the north-western side of Kehelpothdoruwegala, a mountain rising to a height of 5016 feet or 1530 m). On the island of Ceylon, solution caves reaching up to 10 or 20 feet in height are sometimes found in crystalline limestone bands. The caves are generally in rather inaccessible spots, unfortunately, often on the sides of steep cliffs, as in the instance of Nitre Cave in the Rangala area. To reach this cave is difficult but well worth the effort, and when one gets there eventually one finds a large cave with a mouth almost 12 feet [3.66 m] high, in an almost vertical cliff face (COORAY 1967: 97). SITUATION 1973: The gateway to the Knuckles region is Corbet's Gap. Of the two alternative routes available, the approach from Rangala [N07°21'14”: E080°47'7” WGS84] is more picturesque … The other route is from Hunasgiriya [note 10] which lies on the Kandy - Mahiyangana [note 11] road. Buses ply the first 16 km to Loolwatte [note 12] from whence it is about 5 km to Corbet's Gap where these two routes meet. [page 38] The bottom of the valley is reached by a steep meandering road 5 km long, the terminus being the village Karambaketiya [unidentified] … Progress beyond this point is by a footpath leading to two very ancient Kandyan villages, Kaikiwela … or Kaikawela (note 13) … and Mimure … Kaikawela is probably 5.5 km from Karambaketiya, and Mimure another 2.5 km away. The path crosses the rocky upper reaches of the Heen Ganga … [page 39] When walking from Karambaketiya to Mimure one gets distant glimpses, on the opposite mountain range across the valley, of a rock with a white patch. It marks the situation of Nitre Cave. The villagers call it Lunegala (salt rock) or Wawulagala (bat rock) … [page 42] The take off point in the climb to Nire Cave is a tiny hamlet of four huts called Na-ela which is about 6.5 km from Kaikawela. The track crosses the Heen Ganga and Maha Oya in quick succession … It would be unwise not to engage a guide at Na-ela, for after an initial descent towards a jungle stream, the final climb is through trackless terrain. … it is by holding on supple saplings that one levers himself up the gradient, almost 45 degrees steep at [page 43] places, along a track that has to be traced by cutting through the undergrowth. … With the final few laborious steps one emerges from the fringe of the jungle directly in front of the mouth of the cave which occupies the base of a massive rock … [page 44] On reaching Na-ela there was an alternative route to Karambaketiya and Corbet's Gap through St. Martin's Estate [note 14]. The distance … was about 10 km, and the road did not prove difficult (URAGODA 1973: 37-44). SITUATION 1973: One of the two caves of Sri Lanka, which are mentioned finally (note 15) without ovious reasons (note 16), is the Nitre Cave near Kaikawala or Kaikiwala (note 17) in an area allegedly called Uda [note 18] (KUSCH 1973c: 23). SITUATION 1974: … at an elevation of 2,000 feet on a slope of a north-easterly extension of the Knuckles range. It may be approached via Teldeniya [N07°17'49”: E080°46'07” WGS84], Rangala [N07°21'14”: E080°47'07” WGS84], Looloowatte [N07°22': E080°51'] (Corbett's Gap) and Mimure [N07°26': E080°50']. The cave, which is in the Knuckles Wilderness, is just over three miles [5 km] by jeep from Corbett's Gap [N07°22': E080°50'], the track terminating at the foot of the hill. The final climb involves and ascent over difficult terrain on a gradient of 45 degrees in some places (CEYLON TRAVELLER 1974: 243; 1983: 245). SITUATION 2005: About 5 km from the Meemure Village … is the -Vedilunu Guhava- (Nita Caves) (GAMAGE 2005.08.06). APPROACH 1945: Approaching Nitre Cave from Corbetts Gap (sic), … it was felt best that four of us shoud go on ahead to spy out the land. … our guide led us along the well-marked path round the Spur but soon turned off into virgin jungle. After some way of moderately easy going, the first of many steep descents over wet rock, made the more hazardous by a topsoil of damp leaves and rotting vegetation, brought us to a racing stream pursuing its downward course by leaps and bounds over cascades and waterfalls. This we followed, leaping from rock to rock, spurred on to a higher endeavor in the matter of speed by hordes of loathsome leeches which dropped in showers from the trees and advanced over over the rock in our line of approach. Eventually, after many hours hard going, we arrived at the base of a lonesome cliff, and upon following this round for a short distance, an acrid smell – Nitre! – told us that we had reached our objective. In a last spurt of energy we stroved upwards and sank exhausted in the cave mouth (PEET 1945: 93). APPROACH 1995: From Kandy, take the A26 Teldeniya road fr between 20 to 22 miles [32.2 to 35.4 km] in the direction of Rangala and turn into the valley of the Heen Ganga, a tributary to the Mahaveli Ganga (Brooks 1995 Mss, no. 40). APPROACH 2009: From Colombo 170 km via A1 to Kandy and via 26 to Hunasgiriya (condition of the road stretch from Hunasgiriya onwards can vary from good to bad depending on the level of maintenance) and the village of Loolwatta to Corbett’s Gap (in Sinhala: Attala-mettuwa). The 9.8 km long route from Corbett’s Gap to Nitro Caves (sic) in the Knuckles mountain range initially descends 4.8 km from Corbett’s Gap (1216 m asl, waypoint 01) some 500 m down to the village of Kumbukgolla at 450 asl (point 22 primary school), the furthest point accessible by 4WD, from where a 1.2 km footpath ascends some 250 to the entrance to the Nitro Cave at 676 m asl (waypoint 55). From Corbett's Gap (1216 m asl, waypoint 01) walk or drive 4.8 km (500 m downhill) towards Meemure. At a sharp bend to the left (point 13), a 2.2 km jeeptrack to the right reaches after 2.2 km the few houses of Kumbukgolla (waypoint 22) and proceeds to the end of the jeep track (waypoint 34), which lies 4.8 km from the Meemure road turnoff and 9.8 km from Corbett's Gap.From the end of the jeep track, start descending a foot path on the left (sic). After about 100 m the trail turns slightly left in a section paved with stones (waypoint 35) and continues passing small paddy plots, village houses and chena. About 350 m from the end of the jeep track, the trail enters a bushy forest patch (waypoint 38). Again 350 m further on (waypoint 42), do not descend left to a house but continue … about 100 m along the trail you will find a similar trail on to your left climbing down to a river [waypoint 44]. Take this trail and climb [sic! read: walk] down to the river. In about 50 m, you will be on a large bed rock the stream flows over and drops about 10 m down creating a mini waterfall (waypoint 45). From here, turn right, walk about 20 m alongthe bed rock crossing the stream (waypoint 46) and find the continuation of the trail in to the forest …As you move in to the forest you will encounter a very steep climb for about 40 m or so. After that the climb will become moderate with occasional steep stretches. At about 75 m from the stream, the trail takes a slight right turn and continues its climb up [waypoint 49]. About 250 m from the stream you will pass an area which looks like a dry stream with a large rocks on the right side [waypoint 52]. Passing this, in another 50 m the trail starts the last 50 m of steep climb at a point where there are two large trees with ash color bark next to each other (waypoint 53). Passing this point and, climbing through two large boulders reach the opening of the Nitro Cave [waypoint 55]. Enjoy the stunning view of Lakegala Peak straight in front of the cave over the forest (note 19). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1821: The Nitre cave of Memoora in the Doombera … The first view of the place was exceedingy striking. A large cave appeared in a perpendicular face of rock about three hundred feet high crowned with a forest… The cave was two hundred feet deep [about 60 m long], and at its mouth, which was nearly semicircular, about eighty feet [24.4 m] high and one hundred wide [25 by 30 m]. Its floor was rocky and steep, rapidly ascending inward, and its extremity was narrow and dark. To facilitate the ascent, ladders were planted in the most difficult places. [Considering the intensive nitre works] … the cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial [note 20] (DAVY 1821: 379-380). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1840: Meemoorra … a nitre cave, the most productive in the Kandian country, although the quantity it yielded was so trifling that it is not now worth working (FORBES 1840, 2: 103 note; 1841, 2: 104). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1849: Near Meemoorra is a nitre cave of large dimensions, and striking appearance. It appears in a perpendicular face of rock, about 300 feet high, crowned with a foest. The cave is 200 feet deep, and about 80 feet high, and 100 wide at its mouth, which is nearly semi-circular. The cave is partly natural and partly artificial (PRIDHAM 1849, 2: 663). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1931: The Nitre Cave in the Knuckles Group section of the Hill Country region is an interesting feature reputed to represent a large natural cavern inhabited by thousands of bats, whose droppings have created a deposit on the floor of the cave (COOK 1931: 351) CAVE DESCRIPTION 1946: … the cave mouth … was an imposing portal. Subsequent surveys proved it to have a breadth of 82 ft. [25.1 m] and a height of 38 ft. [11.7 m]. The cavern itself extended into the hill for a distance of 190 ft. [58.1 m] at a general upward slope of 39° [on a bearing of circa 160°]. Although in a very fine crystalline limestone, there was no sign of water action but as the cave undoubtedly dates from an earlier cycle of erosion when the valley stream was several hundred feet higher it is possible that these eidences have been obliterated by subaerial weathering. This is probably the case, since the walls and roof of the cave both show indications of considerable flaking. All through the cavern were loose, deep, dusty drifts of the strong smelling bat guano, here and there crusted into nitre, brittle stuff which often occurred as pseudo rocks or walls, simulating the guano-covered real rock, and which treacherously broke away as one climbered around it. For the most part, the -nitre rock- is a hard, crumbly at pressure, clay-like rock, being an oudated [sic!] coagulation of the guano: colour varies from brown to dirty white and [the rock] contains a good deal of foreign matter. The guano itself resembles horse-droppings except in size which that of a good sized rat dirt. Stretched between the interstices of the limestone were tiny, glistening sheets of the purest calcite, which in haphazard, box-like formations encased clear and perfectly formed crystals of gypsum, a beautiful combination nd, at least in my experience, rare. … In recognition of … [the bat's] tenacity as rulers of their domain, two of the smaller creeps [crawls] were named after them, e.g. -The Belfry- and -Bat's Retreat-. The Belfry was appropriately named as it lies high in the cavern roof and is rather difficult to approach. CAVE DESCRIPTION 1948: … Nitre Cave … is the biggest and the best known. The nitre was obtained during the Sinhalese king's times from the bat guano that covers the floor of the cave (LEITER 1948: 65) CAVE DESCRIPTION 1956: The cave is, as previously reported, formed by the solution of a limestone band and has an inner level about 12 feet [3.76 m] higher than the mouth … The floor of the cave was covered by a thin layer of sawdust-like guano or bat's dung, sometimes reaching 1–1 1/2 feet [0.3 to 0.56 m] in thickness in crevices and between boulders, but nowhere was it as spectacularly thick as expected. More surprising was the complete absence of bats … Owing to the latenss of the hour the cave could not be explored more fully … (COORAY 1956: 50). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1956: A great, wide cave infested with incredible colonies of bats, the floor being spongy with their dung (KEUNEMANN 1956: 296). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1967: … a large cave with a mouth almost 12 feet [3.7 m] high, in an almost vertical cliff face. A platform within the main [part of the]cave forms the floor of an inner, smaller [part of the] cave, about 8 feet [2.4 m] high, the floor of which is covered with a soft, powdery, brown deposit like saw dust. This is the 'nitre' after which the cave is named; it is really the droppings (guano) of hundreds of bats which infest this and all such caves and give them their obnoxious smell (COORAY 1967: 97). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1973: The floor is about 15 feet [5 m] above ground level. A few rugged steps in the rock lead to a horizontally placed slab of rock that obstructs the entrance to the cave. The roof of the cave is roughly arch shaped and about 15 o 20 feet [4.6 to 6.1 m] from the floor. The main gallery, as it veers slightly to the left, narrows down considerably to end in a small elliptical opening which is beyond reach for investigation. [Keyword: fabulous tunnel:] According to folklore, this opening leads into another compartment which extends very far. From the main gallery two passages branch off to the left. The one further from the entrance is about 20 feet [6 m] long and it too ends in a dark opening beyond which is another compartment. The other passage is a short one near the entrance and it ends blindly (URAGODA 1973: 43, figures 1, 2 opposite page 44). CAVE DESCRIPTION 1974: The roof of the cave varies in height from 15 to about 20 feet [4.6 to 6.1 m] above the floor level. The main gallery in the cavern then narrows down to tail off in a narrow opening which is too small permit entry or further exploration. From the entrance to the cavern, passages lead off into subsidiary caves. At the left of the cavern, a sprin of cool, clear water sprouts from the rock (CEYLON TRAVELLER 1974: 243; 1983: 245). CAVE DESCRIPTION 2009 lakdasun.com/trails/trail-14-nitro-caves-from-corb…> (last updated 2009.01.21, accessed 2009.08.02): Nitro cave [sic!] is a large cave hidden deep in the southern parts of Knuckles Mountains. Inhabited by hundreds of thousands of bats for possibly many hundred thousand years had made this cave a rich deposit of saltpeter (potassium nitrate) traditionally used to make gun powder. It is believed that this cave was used as a source of saltpeter by rulers of Sri Lanka … CAVE POTENTIAL: PEET (1946: 93) draws attention to an obviously unexplored The Belfry … appropriately named as it lies high in the cavern roof and is rather difficult to approach and noticed disappearing bats, which he … managed to frighten most of them out … [though] where they went to was an unsolved mystery … (note 21). Last but not least, there is the belly crawl giving access to –>Lunugala Lena2 located a little further up the ravine where PEET 1946: 94) noticed a … low fissure a few feet across and a foot high, which [gives access?] into the hill for a matter of some 20 ft. [6.1 m]. Possibly it connects with 'The Belfry' for it extends towards that part of Nitre Cave and is at the same level. SPELEOMETRY: Interpreting the cave -survey- (British standards) by PEET (1946), the approximately 60 m long cave ascends about 18 m from the floor at the entrance to the ceiling near the distal dwindle hole. PEET (1946: 93) confirms that … the cavern extended into the hill for a distance of 180 feet [58 m] at a general [upon entering the entrance] upward slope of 39°. GEOLOGY: reports from the nitre cave near Memoora in Doombera … a very compounded rock consisting of calcspar, felspar, quartz, mica, and talc. PRIDHAM (1849, 2: 709) had compiled from an unidentified source that a very compounded rock, consisting of calcspar, felspar, quartz, mica, and talc has been found in a nitrecave near Doombera.COORAY (1956: 56) reports from the vicinity of Nitre Cave a 50 foot (15 m) thick band of crystalline limestone, which is not only variable in composition and texture but also interbedded with garnetiferous granulites and gneisses. The limestone is rather impure in parts and contains diopside, forsterite, phlogopite mica and spinel and the weathering out of bands of these impurities gives it a fluted appearance in parts. Contained also in the limestone are dark bands and lenses of mica schist and diopside granulite, the weathering out of which have given rise to small pockets in the walls of the cave. MINERALOGY 1821: Judging from the four nitre caves that I have visited [note 22], and from the specimens of rocks of several more that I have examined, I believe that they are all very similar; and, that the rock in which they occur, in every instance contains at least felspar and carbonate of lime; from the decomposition of of the former of which, the alkaline base of he salt is generally derived, and by the peculiar influence of the latter, (yet not fully understood,) on the oxygen and azote of the atmosphere, the acid principle is generated. I confirmation of this statement, it may be remarked, that I have never been able to detect saltpetre, excepting superficially, where air could have access; never accompanied by nitrat of lime, or magnesia; in no rock, not containing lime and felspar; that the richness of the rock, in general, has been proportional to the abundance and intimate mixture of these two ingredients; and, that the results of experiments which I have made on a variety of specimens of saltpetre-earth from Bengal, for which I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Brown from Calcutta, were similar to those just mentioned, and tended to the same conclusions. Besides the essential circumstances of the presence of atmospheric air, lime and alkaline mineral, there are other circumstances which, if my observations be correct, greatly aid in th operation of forming the salt. I shall mention the most remarkable only, which appear to me to be slight humidity and the presence of a little animal matter. Perhaps humidity is absolutely necessary; certainly, I have seen spots in a nitre cave, without any impregnation of saltpetre, which, excepting their great dryness, seemed to possess every requisite for the production of the salt. Animal matter, by those ignorant of chemistry, is considered of itself the chief source of nitre. Persuaded by this, my countrymen in Ceylon, with whom I conversed on the subject, generally attributed the saltpetre of the caves in question to the dung of bats, with which the caves are more or less infested. It is easy to refute such a notion; and to show, that the dung of these animals, like any animal matter, is not an essential, merely an assistant circumstance. For this purpose, it will be sufficient to remark, that in the nitre-cave near Memoora in Doombera, in a very compounded rock consisting of alcspar, felspar, quartz, mica, and talc, in a humid state, exposed to air, and slowly decomposing, I have found a rich impregnation of saltpetre, though quite free from the dung of bats, or any other animal matter; and conversely, that I have not been able to detect any traces of this salt in the dung of bats, that had accumulated in great quantity in an old forsaken pagodah (DAVY 1821: 31-32). MINERALOGY 1846: In Ceylon [note 23], a cavern near Mensoora [sic!], in the district of Doombera, in a decomposing rock consisting of calcspar, felspar, quartz, mica, and talc, in a humid state, exposed to the air, and perfectly free from any animal matter [note 24], contains a rich impregnation of nitre [note 25]. … It would appear in these cases to be deposited like stalagmitic encrustations of lime by water percolating through fissures in the rocks forming the sides and roofs of the cave, and these waters have not hitherto been traced to the source; and it is very probable they may have arrved at these nitrous caves impregnated with saline matter derived from beds of animal remains in other caves occupying a higher level. Another source of potass, where such depositions occur in felspar rocks, as in Ceylon, may be traced to the decomposing felspar itself, which contains from twelve to fourteen per cent of potass (NEWBOLD, T J 1846f: 266). MINERALOGY 1849: PRIDHAM (1849, 2: 709) had compiled from unidentified sources that in the nitre cave near Doombera … a rich impregnation of saltpetre is found in a very compounded rock, consisting of calcspar, felspar, quartz, mica, and talc, in a humid state, exposed to the air and slowly decomposing, and free from bat dung or other animal matter. … Nitrate of lime is never met with [on the island of Ceylon], except in combination with nitre. Sulphate of magnesia is seldom or never found, the only instance being the cave near Doombera. In the same cave, and nowhere else, alum is discoverable in a minute quantity. The acid of both thee salts is probably derived from decomposing pyrites and the magnesia of the sulphate by decomposing talc. This sulphate forms with the nitre, and crystallises with it. It is rejected by the ignorant natives in their preparation of saltpetre. MINERALOGY 1986: Cristobalite (lutecite, opal) … Cave opal was first described by Davy (1821), who reported -hyalite- (opal) encrusting granitic rock in a -nitre- cave in Doombera, Ceylon (HILL & FORTI 1986: 104). CULTURAL HISTORY - Human use: The cave sediment of Lunugala Lena had been exploited for potassium nitrate (nitre, saltpetre, NaNO3), which is an important ingredient in the manufacture of gun powder, which is obtained by mixing it with sulphur and carbon: The Sinhalese obtained these ingredients locally, carbon being the charcoal from the wood Pavetta indica (URAGODA 1973: 40). Dr. John Davy gives a chemical composition of the nitre-rock of Memora [sic] in Doombera (DAVY 1821: 33; PRIDHAM 1849, 2: 709) and describes the process (pages 39-380): The workmen, whom I found at their labours, sixteen in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed; their bodies, almost naked, were soiled with dirt, and their bushy beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When I arrived, they were occupied, not in the cave, but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then going on in the open air, —of filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation. The apparatus employed was curious for its simplicity and rudeness. A small stream, of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes supported by sticks; and the evaporating vessels, and, indeed, all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial. I was informed, that during the last fifty years, for six months during the dry season, it hs been annually worked, and that each man employed was required to furnish a load of nitre, which is about sixty pounds [27.2 kg], to the royal stores. GAMAGE (2005.08.06): … the -Vedilunu Guhava- (Nita Caves). This cave has been used to produce gunpowder to the Royal Arm stores in the Kandyan era.CAVE LIFE: In late June 1945 PEET (1946: 93-94) used the light of candles for illumination but anyhow noticed … bats [Chiroptera] of the benight, small, common cave variety which he and his company … found to be in indisputable possession [of the cave], although when surveying we managed to frighten most of them out, leaving but a few to hinder our observation9-380): The workmen, whom I found at their labours, sixteen in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed; their bodies, almost naked, were soiled with dirt, and their bushy beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When I arrived, they were occupied, not in the cave, but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then going on in the open air, —of filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation. The apparatus employed was curious for its simplicity and rudeness. A small stream, of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes supported by sticks; and the evaporating vessels, and, indeed, all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial. I was informed, that during the last fifty years, for six months during the dry season, it h9-380): The workmen, whom I found at their labours, sixteen in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed; their bodies, almost naked, were soiled with dirt, and their bushy beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When I arrived, they were occupied, not in the cave, but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then going on in the open air, —of filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation. The apparatus employed was curious for its simplicity and rudeness. A small stream, of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes supported by sticks; and the evaporating vessels, and, indeed, all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial. I was informed, that during the last fifty years, for six months during the dry season, it h9-380): The workmen, whom I found at their labours, sixteen in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed; their bodies, almost naked, were soiled with dirt, and their bushy beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When I arrived, they were occupied, not in the cave, but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then going on in the open air, —of filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation. The apparatus employed was curious for its simplicity and rudeness. A small stream, of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes supported by sticks; and the evaporating vessels, and, indeed, all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial. I was informed, that during the last fifty years, for six months during the dry season, it h9-380): The workmen, whom I found at their labours, sixteen in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed; their bodies, almost naked, were soiled with dirt, and their bushy beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When I arrived, they were occupied, not in the cave, but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then going on in the open air, —of filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation. The apparatus employed was curious for its simplicity and rudeness. A small stream, of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes supported by sticks; and the evaporating vessels, and, indeed, all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial. I was informed, that during the last fifty years, for six months during the dry season, it h9-380): The workmen, whom I found at their labours, sixteen in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed; their bodies, almost naked, were soiled with dirt, and their bushy beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When I arrived, they were occupied, not in the cave, but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then going on in the open air, —of filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation. The apparatus employed was curious for its simplicity and rudeness. A small stream, of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes supported by sticks; and the evaporating vessels, and, indeed, all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial. I was informed, that during the last fifty years, for six months during the dry season, it h9-380): The workmen, whom I found at their labours, sixteen in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed; their bodies, almost naked, were soiled with dirt, and their bushy beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When I arrived, they were occupied, not in the cave, but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then going on in the open air, —of filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation. The apparatus employed was curious for its simplicity and rudeness. A small stream, of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes supported by sticks; and the evaporating vessels, and, indeed, all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial. I was informed, that during the last fifty years, for six months during the dry season, it h9-380): The workmen, whom I found at their labours, sixteen in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed; their bodies, almost naked, were soiled with dirt, and their bushy beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When I arrived, they were occupied, not in the cave, but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then going on in the open air, —of filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation. The apparatus employed was curious for its simplicity and rudeness. A small stream, of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes supported by sticks; and the evaporating vessels, and, indeed, all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial. I was informed, that during the last fifty years, for six months during the dry season, it h9-380): The workmen, whom I found at their labours, sixteen in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed; their bodies, almost naked, were soiled with dirt, and their bushy beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When I arrived, they were occupied, not in the cave, but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then going on in the open air, —of filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation. The apparatus employed was curious for its simplicity and rudeness. A small stream, of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes supported by sticks; and the evaporating vessels, and, indeed, all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial. I was informed, that during the last fifty years, for six months during the dry season, it h9-380): The workmen, whom I found at their labours, sixteen in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed; their bodies, almost naked, were soiled with dirt, and their bushy beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When I arrived, they were occupied, not in the cave, but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then going on in the open air, —of filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation. The apparatus employed was curious for its simplicity and rudeness. A small stream, of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes supported by sticks; and the evaporating vessels, and, indeed, all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial. I was informed, that during the last fifty years, for six months during the dry season, it h9-380): The workmen, whom I found at their labours, sixteen in number, were the rudest set of artificers I ever witnessed; their bodies, almost naked, were soiled with dirt, and their bushy beards and hair were matted and powdered with brown dust. When I arrived, they were occupied, not in the cave, but on the platform before it, attending to the operations that were then going on in the open air, —of filtration, evaporation, and crystallisation. The apparatus employed was curious for its simplicity and rudeness. A small stream, of water was led from a distance to the place by a pipe of bamboos; the filters were of matting, in the shape of square boxes supported by sticks; and the evaporating vessels, and, indeed, all the vessels used, were the common chatties of the country, of which a great many were assembled of various sizes. The cave may be considered partly natural and partly artificial. I was informed, that during the last fifty years, for six months during the dry season, it hs been annually worked, and that each man employed was required to furnish a load of nitre, which is about sixty pounds [27.2 kg], to the royal stores. GAMAGE (2005.08.06): … the -Vedilunu Guhava- (Nita Caves). This cave has been used to produce gunpowder to the Royal Arm stores in the Kandyan era.CAVE LIFE: In late June 1945 PEET (1946: 93-94) used the light of candles for illumination but anyhow noticed … bats [Chiroptera] of the benight, small, common cave variety which he and his company … found to be in indisputable possession [of the cave], although when surveying we managed to frighten most of them out, leaving but a few to hinder our observation